Music, Rhythm and Child Development

Buday, E. M. M. A. The Effects of Signed and Spoken Words Taught with Music on Sign and Speech Imitation by Children with Autism. Journal of Music Therapy 32(3),
189-202. 95.

Abstract: The intent of this study was to explore the use of music as a strategy to promote better memory for manual signs with children with autism, who have been exposed to simultaneous communication. The 10 children tested were taught a total of 14 signs under two conditions. One condition involved signs taught in conjunction with music and speech. The other condition involved signs taught in conjunction with rhythm and speech. The number of correctly imitated signed words and correctly imitated spoken words out of 7 total, were measured under both conditions. Results from 2 factorial ANOVAs indicated significant main effects for condition type (music vs. rhythm) for both the number of imitated signed words (F=6.54,p<.05) and the number of imitated spoken words (F=8.33,p<.02). In each case, correct imitation favored music condition training over rhythm condition training. The results are discussed in terms of representing a potential first step in using music within a simultaneous communication context to promote better pragmatic skills with children with autism.

Cassidy, J. W. Ph. D. Standley J. M. The Effect of Music Listening on Physiological Responses of Premature Infants in the NICU. Journal of Music Therapy 32(4),
208-227. 95.

Abstract: In this study 20 low birth weight infants of 24-30 weeks gestation age, who were being oxygenated in a Neonatal Intensive Care Unit (NICU), served as subjects during their first week of life. Ten infants listened to lullabies through Bio-logic insert earphones with ALGO Ear Couplers and 10 infants served as control subjects. All subjects passed an auditory brainstem response (ABR) procedure to insure that audiological responses were consistent with normal hearing. Experimental treatment occurred across 3 days and was conducted in an ABABABABA design, with data collected during five segments of four minutes each of silence alternating with four segments of four minutes each of music. Oxygen saturation levels, heart rate, respiratory rate, and number of apnea/bradycardia episodes were recorded once per minute for the duration of baseline and treatment conditions (36 minutes). Results indicated that music was not contraindicated in the first week of life for these very low birth weight infants for whom sensory stimulation is usually restricted. In fact, music had noticeably positive effects on oxygen saturation levels, heart rate, and respiratory rate. No increase in apnea/bradycardia episodes following music treatment were observed.

Feierabend, J. M. Music and Movement for Infants and Toddlers: Naturally Wonder-Full. Early Childhood Connections , 19-26. 1996.

Abstract: TBA

Graziano, A. B. Shaw G. L. Wright E. L. Music Training Enhances Spatial-Temporal Reasoning in Young Children: Towards Educational Experiments. Early Childhood Connections , 30-36. 1997.

Abstract: We have demonstrated that preschool children given six months of piano keyboard lessons improved dramatically on spatial-temporal reasoning while children in appropriate control groups did not improve. We are now following up this study with kindergarten children and are testing the hypothesis that improvement in spatial-temporal reasoning will lead to improved mastering of specific, "difficult" math concepts. Although additional scientific research should be done in the next few years, the purpose of this paper is to present our results and experience in a way that is useful to schools and individuals now wishing to do educational experiments.

Howell, R. D. Ph. D. Flowers P. J. Ph. D. Wheaton J. E. The Effects of Keyboard Experiences on Rhythmic Responses of Elementary School Children with Physical Disabilities. Journal of Music Therapy 32(2), 91-112. 95.

Abstract: Keyboard instruction using a new music software program was provided over a 10 week period to 8 students with physical disabilities. Students engaged in directed musical activities in both school and home settings under the direction of music and special educators. The students used a Macintosh computer with MIDI interface to replicate beat patterns at 120 beats per minute (bpm), at 64 bpm, and to maintain a self generated tempo. Graphic and statistical analyses showed mixed results. In general, six of the eight students showed varying degrees of improvement on the measures of tempo as a result of the music instruction, although type and severity of disability did not appear related to rhythm responses. The results are discussed in terms of both group and individual response patterns, and conclude with suggestions for future research.

Lorch, C. A. Lorch V. Diefendorf A. Earl P. W. Effect of Stimulative and Sedative Music on Systolic Blood Pressure, Heart Rate, and Respiratory Rate in Premature Infants. Journal of Music Therapy 31(2), 105-118. 94.

Abstract: This investigation compared the effects of two different types of music - sedative and stimulative - on premature infants in isolettes in an intensive care nursery (ICN). Systolic blood pressure, heart rate, and respiratory rate were observed and measured for increase or decrease from the resting values. Ten premature infants (age 33 to 35 weeks post-conception) who were receiving oral feeding were selected as subjects from a Level III ICN regional referral center. Infants with intensive medical conditions were excluded from the study. Infants were tested in the same isolette and at the same time of day. Infants were pretested for functional hearing, and music levels were presented at 78+/- 2dB (sound pressure level). A 10-minute resting range was measured prior to a 10-minute music intervention. Music sessions were presented on two consecutive days to prevent overstimulation; the stimulative selection was "Sabre Dance," while the sedative selection was "Moonlight Sonata." Results, analyzed via ANOVA, indicated significant results for "Sabre Dance" vs. baseline, for "Moonlight Sonata" vs. baseline, and for "Moonlight Sonata" vs. "Sabre Dance." Similar results were observed for heart rate and for respiratory rate. Results showed that music had an effect on physiological responses of premature infants.

Miller, L. K. Orsmond G. Assessing Structure in the Musical Explorations of Children with Disabilities. Journal of Music Therapy 31(4), 248-265. 94.

Abstract: Quantitative procedures for analyzing the content of free keyboard improvisations in children were described and applied to protocols collected from children with a variety of disabilities with no formal training in the instrument. Marked individual differences in musical structure as well as change across sessions were observed in the protocols. Several additional analyses addressed the musical and psychological utility of the procedures used.

Rauscher, F. H. Shaw G. L. Ky K. N. Listening to Mozart enhances spatial-temporal reasoning: towards a neurophysiological basis. Neuroscience Letters 185, 44-47. 95.

Abstract: Motivated by predictions of a structured neuronal model of the cortex, we performed a behavioral experiment which showed that listening to a Mozart piano sonata produced significant short-term enhancement of spatial-temporal reasoning in college students. Here we present results from an experiment which replicates these findings, and shows that (i) 'repetitive' music does not enhance reasoning; (ii) a taped short story does not enhance reasoning; and (iii) short-term memory is not enhanced. We propose experiments designed to explore the neurophysiological bases of this causal enhancement of spatial-temporal reasoning by music, and begin to search for quantitative measures of further higher cognitive effects of music.

Rauscher, F. H. Shaw G. L. Levine L. J. Wright E. L. Dennis W. R. Newcomb R. L. Music training causes long-term enhancement of preschool children's spatial-temporal reasoning. Neurological Research 19, 2-8. 97.

Abstract: Predictions from a structured cortical model led us to test the hypothesis that music training enhances young children's spatial-temporal reasoning. Seventy-eight preschool children participated in this study. Thirty-four children received private piano keyboard lessons, 20 children received private computer lessons, and 24 children provided other controls. Four standard, age-calibrated, spatial reasoning tests were given before and after training; one test assessed spatial-temporal reasoning and three tests assessed spatial recognition. Significant improvement on the spatial-temporal test was found for the keyboard group only. No group improved significantly on the spatial recognition tests. The magnitude of the spatial-temporal improvement from keyboard training was greater than one standard deviation of the standardized test and lasted at least one day, a duration traditionally classified as long term. This represents an increase in time by a factor of over 100 compared to a previous study in which listening to a Mozart piano sonata primed spatial-temporal reasoning in college students. This suggests that music training produces long-term modifications in underlying neural circuitry in regions not primarily concerned with music and might be investigated using EEG. We propose that an improvement of the magnitude reported may enhance the learning of standard curricula, such as mathematics and science, that draw heavily upon spatial-temporal reasoning.

Sergeant, D. Roche S. Perceptual Shifts in the Auditory Information Processing of Young Children. Psychology of Music 1 (2)(1973), 39-48. 1973.

Abstract: Reviewed by Joyce Jordan-DeCarbo, Ph.D., Research Review Editor. This study continues to be important because it was one of the first attempts to investigate attentional shifts in auditory processing. At the perceptual level when children are introduced to new sensory information, they tend to focus on only one attribute at a time. As they are able to assimilate this information, they become capable of higher order functioning, including classifying, categorizing, recalling, reordering, improvising, and conceptualizing. Ages at which children process musical stimuli in this continuum have not been firmly established by researchers.

Staum, M. J. Ph. D. RMT-BC Brotons M. Ph. D. RMT-BC. Issues in Music for Children in a Homeless Shelter: Social Objectives and Choice of Reinforcers. Journal of Music Therapy 32(4), 248-264. 95.

Abstract: The main purpose of the study was to determine preferences for food, clothing, or music when given a choice in order to determine potential reinforcers for further music therapy intervention. Subjects were six homeless children, ages 5-10 years, living in apartment shelters. Twenty-four additional subjects participated initially but were not counted for the data for a number of different reasons. A secondary purpose of this study was to determine the effectiveness of music therapy activities in teaching important social skills: empathy and cooperation. The hierarchy of skill areas chosen was predetermined by the experimenters based on a previous experimental study. An A-B-C-D design was used for this study. Three rotations of the study occurred to accommodate changes in shelter residency. In the first rotation of the design, there were six sessions under each condition, for a total of 24 sessions. In the second and third rotations, there were three sessions for each condition, for a total of 12 sessions. Condition A was baseline in which subjects' entry level for each of the social skill objectives was measured. Condition B consisted of preparing and taping a music video at the end of each session. During condition C, a choice of food or clothing was presented. During this phase of the design, the experimenter brought a full dinner or newly purchased items of clothing. After the music therapy session, the children stayed and had dinner with their families and the experimenter on the food days, and on the clothes days, left the session with a new item of clothing. In Condition D, the children chose if they wanted to work toward the production of another music video, receive a full dinner, or an item for clothing. These rewards were not contingent on anything except the children's presence at the end of each session. All music sessions were tape recorded and the tapes were transcribed for later analysis and reliability purposes. For the final choices during the D Condition, two children chose clothing, one chose food, and three chose to make a music video. Children's responses to the social skills were inconsistent, and even with music activities specifically designed to address these skills, none of the groups achieved the first hierarchical levels for empathy or cooperation. Attendance was highly variable even with strong positive contingencies for attending. Implications for clinical practice and client consistency over time with this population are discussed.